Between-Year Nest-Site Fidelity in Eastern Bluebirds
in Ohio
Danny J. Ingold
Abstract
I color-banded 17 adult and 192 nestling Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia
sialis) during five breeding seasons from 1990-1994 in Muskingum County,
Ohio. Forty-one percent of adult birds and 8.8% of first-year birds
returned to nest in the same box or general area where they were banded
during the previous year. Eighty-six percent of the adult bluebirds that
returned to previous breeding sites fledged at least some offspring at
those locations during the previous year. Sixty-two percent of the
first-year bluebirds that returned to nest in their natal area fledged
young from at least one brood during their first year. These data
support the idea that adult bluebirds are more likely to return to
previous nest sites to nest than are first-year birds, and that previous
reproductive success is a major factor which influences whether or not
they return. Conversely, it is probable that not all reproductively
successful bluebirds returned to nest at previous nest sites. This
apparent lack of nest-site fidelity, as well as the reproductive success
of returning adults and nestlings, is discussed.
Introduction
The tendency for birds to return to a previous breeding site to nest
during consecutive years has been well documented in both migratory (Kendeigh
1941, Werth 1948, Austin 1949, Darley et al. 1971, Hepp and Kennamer
1992, Jenkins and Jackman 1993) and non-migratory (Harvey et al. 1979,
Schieck and Hannon 1989, Ingold 1991, Fischer et al. 1993) species. The
potential benefits associated with nest-site fidelity include enhanced
familiarity with the breeding grounds (Freer 1979, Gavin and Bollinger
1988) and increased access to the best breeding sites (Dow and Fredga
1983, Rowley 1983), both of which are likely influenced by age and
should result in enhanced reproductive success (cf. Greenwood and Harvey
1992). Nest-site fidelity in Eastern Bluebirds using nest boxes has been
reported in a number of studies (Laskey 1939, 1943; Chapman 1942,
Pinkowski 1971, 1977; Tuttle 1991), but much of the information is
anecdotal and relatively little information has been provided on return
rates and distances moved by individuals within the same breeding area
during consecutive years. Pinkowski (1971) does provide a thorough
account of the recovery rates of bluebirds banded at one location
(presumably their natal grounds) and recovered at other, often distant,
localities. In-addition, not many studies have addressed the previous
reproductive success of adult bluebirds returning to nest in the same
box or general area. Pinkowski (1977) found that during a nine-year
study in Michigan, all 47 adult bluebirds that returned to a previous
breeding area for a second consecutive year were previously successful
in fledging some young in the first year.
The purpose of this paper is to add to the information known about
bluebird nest-site fidelity by providing data from 24 color-banded
bluebirds during a five-year period. I will present results regarding
return rates and inter-year distances both adult and yearling bluebirds
moved within a breeding area. I will also briefly examine the current
and previous reproductive success of adult and yearling birds.
Study Area and Methods
From early April through early August 1990-1994, 1 color-banded adult
and nestling Eastern Bluebirds on two small nest box trails in Muskingum
County, Ohio. The Muskingum Campus Trail (MCT) located on the Muskingum
College campus In New Concord, consists of 25 standard North American
Bluebird Society (NABS) nest boxes on a 37-acre study site (15
hectares), and the White Farm Trail (WFT) located 2.5 miles (4 km)
outside of New Concord consists of 14 NABS boxes on a 20-acre study site
(8 hectares). Boxes on the MCT trail are surrounded by a variety of
habitats including mowed lawns, forest edges and unkempt pastures; boxes
on the WFT are situated along fence rows partitioning grazed pastures,
ungrazed meadows, forest patches and strawberry fields. Boxes on both
study sites are placed 75110 yards apart (70-100 m) but not necessarily
in a straight line. In a few instances boxes are paired about 10 feet
apart (3 m) to help alleviate House Wren (Troglodytes aedon) and Tree
Swallow (Iridoprocne bicolor) competition.
Nest boxes were examined weekly during five nesting seasons (1
991-1995) to determine the extent to which bluebirds returned to
previous nest sites, as well as to monitor their reproductive success. I
categorized returning bluebirds banded as adults as after-second-year
birds (ASY) and individuals banded as nestlings as second-year birds (SY).
Results
Of 209 Eastern Bluebirds banded during this study, 17 were ASY birds
and 192 were SY individuals. Of the 17 ASY birds, 7 (41%; all females)
returned to nest in the same box or immediate area (Table 1). A
two-by-two contingency table Chi-square test revealed that significantly
more ASY bluebirds returned than would have been expected assuming that
individuals were not nest-site tenacious W = 6.48, P < 0.01, df = 1).
In four instances ASY birds returned to the same box, and in three of
these Instances females returned to the same box for two consecutive
years following banding (Table 1). In one instance the ASY female was
not found the year after it was banded, but returned to the box where R
was banded two years later. Two additional ASY birds returned to the box
within 100 m of the box where they were banded, and one of these
individuals returned to boxes within 100 m of the box where ft was
banded for three consecutive years after ft was banded (Table 1).
Two of the four ASY females that returned to the same box fledged
young from two consecutive broods at that box during the previous year,
while a third female was successfully single brooded. The fourth female
failed to produce any young at the box where it was banded (Its nest
attempt was disrupted by House Wrens), but still returned to that box
the following year and failed again at the incubation stage as a result
of House Wren interference. Within a week ft moved to another box about
330 yards away (300 m) where it fledged young from a single nest
attempt. This same individual then returned the following year to the
original box where it was banded and fledged young from its initial
brood before being disrupted by wrens during a second nest attempt. The
two ASY birds that returned to boxes within 100 m of the nest box where
they were banded produced at least some young at that box during the
previous year. In one instance, the banded female produced young from
two broods in 1993 but did not return to the same box in 1994; rather it
fledged young in a box about 70 m away and failed in a second nest
attempt at this box as the result of wren interference. In 1995 this
Individual returned to a third box situated about 75 yards (69 m) from
the 1994 box and 130 yards (120 m) from its original box; it was
successfully double brooded at this box.
Of the 192 SY bluebirds, 17 (8.8%) returned to the same area where
they were banded as nestlings the previous year, to attempt nesting
(Table 2). A two-by-two contingency table Chi-square test revealed that
significantly more SY bluebirds returned than would have been expected
assuming that individuals were not nest-site tenacious (X2 = 15.76, P
< 0.001, DF = 1). SY bluebirds returned to their natal box to attempt
their first nest effort in only one instance. Most SY birds were
discovered at boxes within 550 yards. (503 m) of their natal box;
however, four individuals were discovered at boxes up to 2.5 miles (4
km) from where they were hatched, on a different study site (Table 2).
Only one SY bird returned to nest in the area where ft was hatched for
two consecutive years (Table 2).
Eight of 13 SY birds (62%) that returned to a nest box near their
natal area during their first adult year fledged young from at least one
brood and one individual (a female) successfully raised two broods.
Three individuals did not attempt a second brood after successfully
fledging young from their first nest attempt. Two individuals failed at
their first nest attempt but fledged some young in a second attempt, and
one individual fledged young in a first nest attempt but failed in the
second. Finally, an additional SY bird likely raised two broods, but I
was unable to confirm its presence at the nest box during the second
nest attempt. Of the five individuals that failed to fledge any
offspring during their first adult year, two were found dead and three
failed to complete their nest attempts (one nest failed at the
incubation stage and two failed at the nestling state). Two of the four
individuals that were not found the year after banding but were located
two years later, also successfully raised two broods. The other two
individuals successfully fledged young from a single brood.
a One of these individuals was found dead in a nest box
about 50 m from b natal box in April of its first adult year.
b One of these individuals was not found the year following
banding but returned to a nearby nest-box two years later.
c Two of these individuals were not found the year following
banding but returned to a nearby nest box two years later.
d This individual returned to a box within 0.5 km of its
natal box for two consecutive years following banding.
where they previously nested or in other nearby boxes (usually within
100 m). These data are similar to those that Pinkowski (1977) reported,
and support the notion that nest-site fidelity is selectively
advantageous perhaps in terms of habitat familiarity and/or increased
access to optimal breeding territories (cf. Freer 1979, Dow and Fredga
1983). In addition, R is possible that the availability of suitable nest
cavities on my study sites was limited, thus making ft beneficial for
territorial bluebirds to return and defend previous nest sites.
Interestingly, one adult female bluebird returned to nest in the same
box in which its nest attempt failed the year before as a result of wren
harassment. When the nest attempt during the second year also failed as
a result of wren interference, R moved to another box about 300 m away
and fledged young. It returned to its original box in the third year,
however, and fledged offspring from an early brood before losing the box
to wrens later in the season. This anecdote suggests that although
previous reproductive success plays a major role, there are additional
factors which influence whether or not breeding bluebirds return to
previous nest sites.
Fifty-nine percent of ASY bluebirds did not return to previous nest
sites even though many of them successfully fledged young the year
before. This raises an interesting question about nest-she fidelity and
a problem inherent in nest-site fidelity studies (cf. Gavin and
Bollinger 1988). How does an - observer distinguish between winter bird
mortality and an apparent lack of nest-site fidelity? Pinkowski (1971)
found that the breeding season posed a greater threat to ASY bluebird
survivorship than did migration or the limitations of winter. His data
suggest that it is unlikely that all 59% of the ASY bluebirds I banded
died during the winter months. Thus, it is reasonable to assume that
some bluebirds, in spite of previous reproductive success, are not
nest-site tenacious. This again begs the question of what factors other
than previous reproductive success influence bluebird nest site
fidelity.
My return rate for bluebirds banded as nestlings was 8.8%. Laskey (1
943) reported a SY bluebird return rate of about 6.5%, while Pinkowski
(1971) found that 1.2% of banded nestlings returned to their natal
sites. These findings suggest that young bluebirds are more likely to
disperse to breeding sites at greater distances from their natal sites
than are ASY birds to disperse from previous breeding grounds. This may
be explained in part by the idea that ASY birds are more familiar with
the breeding grounds than are SY birds, and are thus better able to
exploit previous nest sites earlier in the season (cf. Pinkowski 1977).
If this is the case, then younger bluebirds would often be forced to
move to more distant breeding areas. My data support this hypothesis. Of
the 17 SY bluebirds that I re-located in subsequent years, four were
found at about 4 km from their natal sites while nine were found up to
550 yards (0.5 km) from where they were banded. Perhaps more
importantly, of the 192 nestlings that I banded, 175 were never seen
again on my study sites or recovered in the general area in later years.
ASY bluebirds in this study were reproductively more successful than
SY birds in large part because they were often able to raise two broods.
About 57% of returning ASY birds successfully raised two broods during
at least one season, while only 10% of returning SY birds were able to
successfully complete two broods. Pinkowski (1977) found that ASY birds
in Michigan were successful at early nesting attempts more often than SY
birds and attempted second nesting efforts at least 70% of the time when
they successfully fledged young from an early brood. In addition, I
found that young bluebirds Often seemed to lack the experience necessary
to successfully raise young to fledging. At several nests with returning
SY parents, eggs and nestlings simply seemed to have been abandoned.
Most such nesting attempts were initiated later in the nesting season
perhaps on inferior territories when temperatures were warmer and food
was likely more scarce.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to my wife, Robin Densmore, for helping me collect data
and band bluebird nestlings over the years. I would also like to extend
my gratitude to the late Carl Lagle as well as to Doug LeVasseur, both
of whom provided me with quality bluebird boxes and helped me establish
my bluebird trails. John White and the ground crew at Muskingum College
allowed me to erect bluebird boxes on their properties. This study was
funded in part by a grant from the Green Educational Foundation.
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Biology Dept.
Muskingum College
New Concord, OH 43762
Reprinted, with permission, from "Sialia/Bluebird" Journal of
the North American Bluebird Society. NABS is a membership organization
for persons interested in bluebirds and other North American birds which
use cavities for nesting. For membership information, send a message to nabluebird@aol.com
or go to the NABS web site at http://www.nabluebirdsociety.org/
